The Advantages And Shortcomings Of Daisyworld Philosophy Essay

The Advantages And Shortcomings Of Daisyworld Philosophy Essay Topic Selected: The advantages and shortcomings of Daisyworld as an analogue for the real earth system. The aim of this paper is to try and establish whether Daisyworld is an appropriate model of the real earth system, to analyse the debate between academics and in turn to discern wheather any part of Daisyworld and indeed Gaia hold any merit. Background : Daisyworld is a hypothetical model without the presence of greenhouse gases or an atmosphere. Originally consisted of two types of daises white reflecting light and black absorbing light. Later models introduced additional factors into the environment such as foxes, rabbits and other species. The main purpose of the Daisyworld system was to illustrate the crediblity of the Gaia Hypothesis. This proposes all organisms and their surroundings are interconnected to each other, creating a single, regulated system maintaining conditions for life . The original Daisyworld system was criticised for being both a rigid and narrow focused system. Since then Daisyworld has been reassessed, evolving into a more complex comprehensive system. Instead of the two fixed daisy species, many additional species were introduced including herbivores and carnivores through three tropic levels with common examples being rabbits and foxes. (Rabbits and foxes mentioned twice, possibly remove 2nd reference?)(Lovelock,2009) Advantages: Daisyworld demonstrates a simple analogue system, explaining the basic principle of Gaia and how every process has (causes instead of has) an action or reaction (couplings). Although Daisyworld can be perceived as lacking evidentionary support, the daisies show symbiosis with their environment, (but) if one species diminishes (and is) unable to survive with environment changes another species can thrive taking its place or niche. These components within the Daisyworld model can be seen in the earth system, however Daisyworld is often dismissed as a too simplified representation of natural selection. In response to critcism, Lovelocks paper A numerical model of biodiversity further expands this model by allowing the organism to mutate spontaneously. Lovelock states that both his paper and work conducted by Tim Lenton and Stephan Hardling back this theory and this more comprehensive system goes towards explaining the relationship between biodiversity and planet regulation. (Lovelock,1992) Furthermore within The vanishing face of Gaia Lovelock outlines at least ten predictions that were proposed in Gaia theory in the 1990s (proposed within Gaia theory), that (remove that) of which eight of them have been confirmed or accepted. (Lovelock,1992) (wrong ref, should be 2009) Prediction Test Result Mars is lifeless (1968) Atmospheric compositional evidence shows lack of disequilibrium Strong confirmation, Viking mission 1975 That elements are transferred from ocean to land by biogenic gases (1971) Search for oceanic sources of dimethyl sulphide and methyl iodide Found 1973 Climate regulation through biologically enhanced rock weathering (1973) Analysis of iceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ core data linking temperature and CO2 abundance Confirmed 2008, by Zeebe and Caldeira That Gaia is aged and is not far from the end of its lifespan (1982) Calculation based on generally accepted solar evolution Generally accepted Climate regulation through cloud albedo control linked to algal gas emissions (1987) Many tests have been made but the excess of pollution interferes Probable for southern hemisphere Oxygen has not varied by more than 5 per cent from 21 per cent for the past 200 million years (1974) Iceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ core and sedimentary analysis Confirmed for up to 1 million years ago Boreal and tropical forest are part of global climate regulation Models and direct observation Generally accepted Biodiversity a necessary part of climate regulation (1992) By models but not yet in the natural ecosystems Jury still out The current interglacial is an example of systems failure in a physiological sense (1994) By models only Undecided The biological transfer of selenium from the ocean to the land as dimethyl selenide Direct measurements Confirmed 2000, Liss The vanishing face of Gaia. Lovelock,2009 With eight out of ten predictions made being either confirmed or accepted, (this) means that these predictions must carry enough merit for them to be accepted by other professionals. This in turn helps support the Daisyworld model and Gaia. (maybe remove paragraph, adding at end before table that confirm of predicts support daisyworld) It has further been stated within the Daisyworld model that as solar luminosity increases, daises would perish with the increasing temperature, however negative feedbacks dampen these perturbations. This can create issues identifying were (where) some characteristics of an organism had originated, (whether) it be through natural selection or something long term such as evolution. This owes support to the claim, that the world is an interlocking system, coping with a complex interlocking system of feedback loops.This in turn can cause difficulty in isolating the original cause and effect. (Lovelock,1992) P.Saunders theorised that natural selection was not always the crucial factor in a species evolution.When enviomental change occurs, organisms have the chance (to) respond or not at all. If the system reacts as expected, its a regulated system however this regulation can cease. This can cause catastrophic collapse or a shift to a new state from which recovery is possible depending on the rate of shift. Daisyworld surmises that there is another factor involved in the systems self regulation other than natural selection called collective intellegence. Even if this is the case, P.Saunders states that natural selection deals with immediate benefit rather than the long term and insuring stability. This however could be seen as were Gaia could have influence. (Saunders,1994) Shortcomings: One of the main criticisms of Gaia and the Daisyworld model is the claim of planetary regulation through collective intelligence. A further shortcoming of the Daisyworld model has been, that the standard model experiences no greenhouse gases, no atmosphere and no clouds and as such is not representative of claims that the environment intelligently guides/shapes the planet, a real earth system. (Kump et al, 2009) . Furthermore the model uses luminosity in its calculations which is theorized to increase faster than the earths sun which could lead misinterpretations in data. Furthermore although equilibrium is achievable, in the case of the earth system, periods of equilibrium tend to be briefer and more erratic. Another criticism is that a permanent change in luminosity would cause daises to increase across the planet, causing increased albedo and reflectance which could cause a runaway effect. Although this can be witnessed on earth, the Daisyworld system presumes something would be triggered to balance the system. (kump et al,2009) The most significant criticism from various academics to Lovelocks theory is that it is pure conjecture not supported by documented evidence. Lovelock refutes this, citing both evidence he published in his book the vanishing face of Gaia and by insisting random patterns arent coincidental. Instead he insists the planet possesses greater regulatory force through collective intelligence which maintains constant symbiosis between plants, animals and the environment. Furthermore, Dolittle identifies that when a chemical or physical parameter nearly reaches critical levels, the mechanism initiating parameters to allow it to return back to optimum levels are seldom identified. Furthermore there seems to be a lack of consistent results. (Dolittle,1981) A additional shortcoming presented by Richard Dawkins in his work the selfish gene seems to contradict the Daisyworld para-dime.Dawkins states every organism is out for its interests to survive. Through this, there are many individuals that will try different traits to enhance their possible survival and in turn increase the possibility to further the species survival as a whole. The resulting theory is that individuals out for their own benefit try different traits through trail and error, with successful traits incorporated by the species as a whole and so therefore furthering the species existence. (Dawkins,1982) Lovelock counters this by insisting that symbiosis occurs to benefit both individuals and the environment simultaneously with the environment influencing the individual. Dawkins refutes this stating symbiosis is simply a by product of an individual fulfilling its own requirements. Furthermore Dr. W.F.Doolittle insists behaviour isnt genetically written, that instead accidentally balanced feedback loops occur which are fragile and happen by chance. This however conflicts with Lovelocks theory of collective intelligence it instead concludes that life is reliant on several crucial parameters and not that these parameters are manipulable which is implied by Lovelock. (Doolittle,1981) Agreement or debate : Daisyworld has been challenged and debated by several academics from various fields of study. Lovelock believed in hindsight naming his theory Gaia, after the greek godess had a bearing on peoples opinions causing people to reject his theory out of hand and become more resistant. (Lovelock,2000) Furthermore Gaia was criticized for being a teleological system with lifes existence predetermined. Lovelock refutes this stating that he never stated that planetary self regulation was purposeful or contained foresight. (Lovelock,2009) Stephen Jay Gould criticised the theory stating Gaias mechanisms involved in self regulating homeostasis havnt been identified. (Gould,1988) David Abram however refutes this criticism stating that the mechanisms itself are in fact metaphorical and consequentially Stephen Jay Gould had misinterpreted what Lovelock was trying to demonstrate. (Abram,1988) Lovelock reiterates that the connections between various identified mechanisms may never become transparent and this is why the system should be studied in its entirety. He explains his frustration that in other fields this would be accepted as matter of course. (Lovelock,2000) Mathematician R.Feynman backed this rationale further stating that a lack of explanation to the cause and effect of a theory may never be answered mathematically and it is indeed is inevitable in the progression of a theory, that even if answerable this may take time. (Lovelock,2000) Lovelock insists that Gaias biological feedback mechanisms use a process of systemic Darwinian evolution, with organisms that improve their environment survive and thrive better than those who damage theirs. (Lovelock,1979) W.F.Dolittle criticised this stating that nothing in the individuals genome could produce this functionality of intentionally bettering the individuals environment through the feedback process suggested. He therefore refutes Gaia as a scientific theory as the mechanism is unexplained. (Dolittle,1981) In Dawkins book The Extended Phenotype he further refutes this stating organisms are not able to work to a common plan, as foresight and planning would be required. (Dawkins,1982) Biologist L.Margulis and co-founder supports the Gaia hypothesis stating Darwins grand vision was not wrong, only incomplete.   She reiterates Darwin, stating the primary mechanism for selection is the direct competition between individuals for resources of which she expresses that this can be restrictive and lead to a ridged approach towards the subject. She continues by stating that the earths atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithospheres composition are controlled around specific points but that these alter with time. This highlights feedback loops raised in Lovelocks theory further supporting his claims of a level of symbiosis or collective intelligence. Furthermore she states that there is no tendency to preserve habitats and these communities can exist at various degrees of integration. Lovelock also states that although he feels there is a level of symbiosis these fixed points can become tipping points and so therefore no factor is indeed ridged and there is flexibility in the system. This can be seen when a tipping point has be (been) surpassed and the system shifts to a new state. (Margulis, 1999) Conclusion / interpretation : There are many criticisms of lovelocks work involving Daisyworld, one of the most vocal being Richard Dawkins. Dawkins is one of his main critics of his theory of collective intelligence with the biosphere and evolution of the organisms contributing to form a stable planet. Dawkins instead favours the gene as a unit of selection, in contrast with Lovelock. This approach, however has been criticised as misleading and should instead be described as a unit of evolution. Further criticism is that genes, do not exist alone but instead co-operate with each other both within the individual and its environment. Dawkins, however defends his theory stating that genetic recombination and sexual reproduction from a individual genes view sees all other genes as part of its environment. This view is criticised especially by professionals studying higher levels of selection including D.S.Wilson Co who state that a gene based approach can not satisfactorily explain all life for example altruism. Dawkins approach can be perceived as a restricted approach to understanding the earth system and by not analysing the system as whole results can become fractured and misinterpreted. Furthermore, initially Dawkins did not have any evidence to clarify his theories, he tries to rectify this in his book (which book, ref?). Dawkins states an individual organism is looking out for itself and this is ultimately beneficial for the group. This is because if you have many individuals evolving individually any advantageous behaviour or physical attributes can be passed on to the group as a whole. Furthermore this means that advantageous behaviour and attributes are passed onto the group quicker. In conclusion,Lovelock believes that to obtain accurate results we must look at the earth system as a whole this was why he created the Daisyworld model in order to explain the concept of Gaia and to counter criticism towards the theory. Lovelock stated that Daisyworld was never intended to be comparable to a real earth system, especially as the model didnt have an atmosphere and was basic in its formation. He instead created Daisyworld as he perceived that other academics were misinterpreting Gaia and its function and so Daisyworld should simply be a means of explaining the processes on earth and how everything is interconnected. Lovelock confirmed this by stating that Daisyworld was a cybernetic proof of the Gaia hypothesis (Kirchner,2003) Lovelock argued that other theories for example climate change involve a level of uncertanty and as such is widely understood as a young feild of research where inaccreatces can occur with out the theory, being dismissed out of hand. Lovelock states his fustration to this, that Gaia and the Daisyworld model are not afforded the same grace. It is seen in the original model that it was reductional, lacked variability and seemed to have limited comparability to the real earth system. However, this model has extended to include increased species diversity and variability and has included the additional parameters to allow organisms to spontaneously mutate. With these additions, this increases variability into the system which increases the systems credibility by producing more accurate results than the original system. This style of progression can be seen within climate change modeling, where better understanding and increased variability into the system, create a more accurate model moving forward. This however, takes time and as understanding increases so will the model evolve with it. Support for Daisyworld model, highlights the inclusive whole system approach in contrast to some scientists which views can be perceived by some as reductionist, bottom up approach for example Richard Dawkins. It should be appreciated that Daisyworld and more importantly Gaia is trying to create an inclusive model. Furthermore some academics have misinterpreted Daisyworld as the theory and have included some of Daisyworlds shortcomings when evaluating Gaia. Instead, Daisyworld should be seen as just a way of explaining Gaia. Although there are some inaccuracies and shortcomings of Gaia, the theory has already demonstrated that it can evolve over time and as such inaccuracies should be addressed The Gaia hypothesis has seen eight out of ten predictions confirmed or accepted, some have taken time to be proven for example the biological transfer of selenium from the ocean to the land, this was confirmed in 2000, 21 years after the Gaia hypothesis was formulated. This indicates that with some factors have been proven, others will take time to be confirmed. Another advantage of the system is that natural selection is accepted by all academics with the field but it has been realised that natural selection may not answer all outcomings. Therefore it is suggested that Gaia would be evolved in the long term and insuring stability. There are, however some factors that have the possibility of creating miscalculations for example the use of luminosity, which is suspected to be increasing faster than our sun which may lead to misinterpretations. One further, debated shortcoming is that equilibrium is achievable and that when a runaway effect is caused a balance is expected to come into force. In the real earth system equilibrium can be achievable but it is possible that it would be harder to detect in a real earth system for example for a brief period. There are still issues when a chemical or physical parameter is nearly reached, with the mechanism initialising parameters to return to normal seldom identified. The Daisyworld Para-dime isnt inherently wrong. The general principle of the Daisyworld Para-dime is a reasonable proposition. The belief that the world regulates itself on a global scale less so. Instead it is more reasonable to expect the small interactions between species, the environment and so on to balance the system. To illustrate, if the amount of Daisies increase the amount of rabbits one be expected (the opposite would be expected) to as well, cause and effect. Lovelocks general theory that when investigating the environmental effect on the planet, in order to get accurate results it should when ever possible be research in a multi disciplined co-operative approach in order to obtain both correct results and to obtain a fuller picture. Lovelocks theory of planetary regulation is correct but it is seen from the the individual species level, for example if the amount of indivdual cows increase, the level of methane that these cows produce will increase the levels in the atmosphere which could increase the level of warming of the planet. Daisyworld is a simplified representation model consisting of many connections, however how these components interact together is hard to calculate with an infinite amount of variables.It is possible to make a calculated assumption on how the earth will evolve but this is a ever developing topic with greater understanding increasing over time. For now I can only present my conclusion of whether Daisyworld is a flawed system and whether the method carrys any merit when explaining how earth develops over time. Daisyworld (the planet) has the capacity to remain stable even with components that fluctuate and organism becoming extinct, thus meaning that the small componets can change even though the planet stays the same as a whole. However due to the nature Daisyworld it only has a limited capacity of modelling prediction. Daisyworld is a basic model to attempt to explain some of the fundamental interactions in a earth focused system,it however lacks detail. We can, however see a more sophisticated detailed version of the kind of processes that can be seen in the Daisyworld system in modem climate change models. These climate change models are calculated by sophisticated computers which it has been stated that even with this level of sophistication it would still require both a great deal of space and time in order to calculate all eventual probabilities (get the number) In lovelocks most recent book The revenge of Gaia Lovelock states that Gaia is finding it increasingly difficult to minimise impact experiencing bigger losses than before, to the rainforests, planetary diversity and this is testing its ability to minimize the effects off additional greenhouse gases and increases the probability of homeostatic positive feedback associated with global warming. This new stance from Lovelock seems that he is trying to express that the balance that we once had is now being lost. This means that in the real earth system the greenhouse effect in Daisyworld terms would give a positive radiative forcing effect. This isnt modelled within Daisyworld, as Daisyworld has no atmosphere the planet would be considerably warmer with an atmosphere than without. The earth system is a dynamic system that changes over time which holds widespread agreement amongst the scientific community, this in itself means that we will always discover new facts about the planet and this will always be evolving. My assessment. there is a feed back between the daisys and the enviroment that helps regulation. the main fault with daisyworld is that the enviroment concusly adjusts this is instead a reaction to whats happening at a lower level. i dont believe this is what lovelock is trying to say instead this has been misconstuded as such. we can see that fluctation has allways happened and that the planet, as a whole has been able to regulate itself. the earth however has been less able to do this in recent years, this also has been true in history when there have been tiping points where the earth has not been able to regulate itself or maintain a level state. in my opinion, trying to be objective, i believe that the factors in which lovelock used may not exactly be correct or appropreate for example the use of luminosity and the planet having no atmosphere. however, i do firmly believe that lovelocks work has been dismissed by a section of individuals because of these shortcomings within the daisyworld model. Lovelock to his credit, has clearly stated on numerous occasions that daisyworld is not the the theory and as such should not be representative of a real earth system and was instead designed to simply explain the gaia theory. i do feel that lovelocks downfall was the fact that daisyworld was lacking in the detail and that this should have been looked at further before publicising. My conclusion is that daisyworld should not be directly used to calculate the real earth system, as it was never designed to do this. However, daisyworld is a perfect illustation of the gaia hypothesis and works efficently to illustrate the principles of gaia. It should be used as a aid in order to learn the theory. Gaia, itself seems to be gaining increasing merit but along with climate change modelling, there is an understanding that modeling will evolve in time and i believe this is the same with gaia.

Effect of Slavery on Feminism in the Beloved Novel

This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies that serving as a background and frame of preference upon which conceptual framework was formulated. This material gave much background and information for the present study. Related Literature (12 page single space) p 7-21 2. 1 Slavery 2. 1. 1 Timeline of Significant Events. The slave trade had a long history.The first importation of slaves by the Spanish vessels from Africa to America took place in 1522. The first African Slaves arrived in Virginia, USA in 1619. The English colonies start the lawful establishment of slavery in 1660 which included the United States.The start of the big waves of slave importations into the English colonies from Africa occurred in 1700. The slaves start to outnumber the English Americans in 1720. The Quakers start to fight against the evils of Slavery in 1750. The French and Indian War resulted to the expulsion of the French army from many parts of North America for ten years starting in 1753. The United States war for independence from Great Britain started in 1775 in the war of Lexington and Concord. The United States finally declared that it wanted to be independent from the Great Britain on July 9, 1776 .And, the Continental Congress of the United States formally approved their Articles of Confederation on July 9, 1778. And, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania finally abolished the practice of slavery. Great Britain and the United States formally signed the Treaty of Paris agreeing to stop the independence war between the two countries and to recognize the United States as a new nation. And, the Continental Congress sends the new Constitution to the state for ratification on September 28, 1783. George Washington is proclaimed as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789.The Bill of Rights that contained the first ten amendments were approved by more than three fourths of the United States territory and becomes part of the United States Constitution. The United States bought Louisiana from France for fifteen million U. S. dollars. And the members of the United States formally made a law banning the importation of slaves into the United States . Further, the White Churches start their religious outreaches to the African American slaves. The United States quelled the revolt orchestrated by Nat Turner in Virginia.Abraham Lincoln was chosen by the people as the sixteenth president of the United States on March 4, 1861. General Robert Lee’s Confederate army formally surrenders and ends the Civil War on April 9, 1861. The thirteenth Amendment was finally approved by the United States Congress. Lastly, the United States Congress approves with finality the fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This amendment gives automatic citizenship to the slaves. This amendment also punishes those states that do not comply in with the Amendment to remove slavery by taking away the rebelling state’s representation in Congress.Also, all free men are given the right to vote under the fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution The Beloved novel also had a theme entitled slavery. Slavery is described by the novel’s author as commonplace. This means that the people who have slaves are considered normal people. The people during this time period accept that slavery is an institution and its philosophy and mindset affects the lives of many people in the slave –prevalent parts of the United States. Consequently, slavery had its advantages and disadvantages. There are also good owners of slaves as well as abusive owners of slaves.Beloved speaks of Garners. They are the owners of the slaves like Sethe. They were very kind to the African American slaves. In return, the slaves like Sethe and Paul D. , another slave, respected the Garners. This happy cooperation between the Garners and the slaves came to an abrupt end when the Garners died. This novel describes the years before the C ivil War and the years after it. Morrison’s lyrical narrative coherently weaves together the supernatural and the tangible giving a literary masterpiece that pours out a dazzling achievement resulting to a spellbinding reading activity .They were replaced by the cruel leadership of the Garner replacement. The replacement was a man known only as school teacher. Paul D later stated that their happy home would only last as long as the Garners were alive. This was definitely true. Paul D. further reiterated that their happy home under the Garners would be shattered upon his death. The novel also dictates that the Garners are for against the practice of slavery. However, the novel identifies the slaves as just simple playthings or workers who were manipulated by the Garners to feed their fantasies and wants with the slaves as instruments.In a simple to read manner, Beloved author Morrison wants to paint a picture in the minds of the Beloved readers how big the problem of slavery i s. Morrison also indirectly gives clues as to how widespread and evil the slave trade was during those fateful time periods. The author, Morrison, also emphasizes that there are some ways to eradicate slavery. In the Bodwin home, there is a statue of an African American child. The statue has on it an inscription that reads â€Å"At Yo Service†. 2. 1. 2 US. WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.As a backgrounder to this research, George Washington led the Continental Army to defeat the Kingdom of Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War. The war took place between 1775 and 1783. He led the American Army to defeat the British forces in Boston. However, he was later defeated in New York. He counter attacked by crossing across the Delaware River into New Jersey. He won in the battle there because the British forces were caught by surprise. Next, the American forces overrun the two biggest British forces in Saratoga and Yorktown.George Washington united the different sectors of the colonial American pioneers in an astute manner. He negotiated with their new French allies and Great Britain to end its involvement in wars outside the American colonies in its Treaty of Neutrality in 1793 . Further, he was instrumental in a Central American government, the imposition of a national tax system and a central bank. He entered into an agreement with Britain to stop any future war between both of them. George Washington was one of the authors of the United States Constitution.He is famous for the line â€Å"four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conveived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. † This Abrahan Lincoln speech was delivered on the biggest and bloodiest battlefield of the civil war –Gettysburg. This speech brings the civil war combatants, supporters and relatives to the stark reality that George Washington has painstakingly created a new nation, United States. This sp eech was made by the current civil war President Abraham Lincoln during the burial of dead soldiers in a mass grave in Gettysburg .George Washington had pooled together the entire people in the colonies to rally behind his popularity towards independence. He expertly blended the different interests and political hopes of the people and the Continental military into one solid and strong band of brothers. He had been the secret ingredient that united the soldiers then. He did things by helping the different sectors of the military, the states as well as the Continental Congress to settle their differences amicable. He was skillful as a planter, politician and the first United States President .George Washington was very instrumental in creating a free United States with the Declaration of Independence as follows: â€Å"We hold these truths to be self evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are l ife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. † 2. 1. 3 Renaissance literature on Slavery in the 1800s. Many of the people in the South were changing starting in the year 1824. This precipitated from the passing of the Long Virginia hegemony. The humanitarian thought of the prior generations were slowing being replaced by new thoughts.The people were now more interested in the economic turn of events in their lives and their community. The people of the South kept holding on their policy on slavery despite the trend in the North to free the slaves. For, the Southern states’ main economic activity was farming. And the slaves were very useful in the plantations. However, the Northern part of the United States was more industrialized. Thus, the Northerners felt that they no longer need the services of the slaves. The shift from the prior Jefferson to Calhoun was inevitable to the Southerners.This means that the current economic realism had completely eroded the prior humanit arian idealism . There was no stopping of the change from small gentlemen planters over the inarticulate Southern yeomanry. The Southern mind was now focused on the assertion of Aristocratic idealism. The South had abandoned the Jefferson theories of equalitarianism that had been deeply entrenched in the people’s minds from Kentucky to as far away as Georgia. The South had abandoned the agrarian theories of John Taylor and the older Virginian population. The imperialist mind of the South was located in Charleston.The strength of the South could be found in the black belt. This belt started from South Carolina to the East and Texas in the West. For, there were more slaves than the whites in these areas. The philosophical theories of imperialism had spread like wildfire in the Southern American regions. The literature of the eighteenth century was focused on the plantations. Literary pieces during this period include the Anarchiad and Echo of Harford Wits. Other literary pieces included the private letters of an indignant gentleman . American literature during the 1800s was symbolic in nature.This was the style of American literature expert Charles Feidelson Jr. American writers during the accounting period Emerson, Whitman, Melville and Hawthorne tried to understand the American world in terms of symbols. They felt that this was the best way to unveil the significance of the phenomenal world they were living in. Feidelson felt that the rage to interpret American life was the inherent quality needed to produce quality American Literature in the 1800s. Here, the Puritans of this time period were too engrossed in the study of the meaning of self, world and the Puritan hermeneutic typology.The people here were busy trying to think what God’s plan for United States continent was for the coming years. Another American literature during this time period was The Rhetoric of American roman Romance by Evan Carlton. Carlton used Davitt Bell’s concept of starting a literary mastery with the theme of relation . 2. 2 Characters of the Story 2. 2. 1 Sethe Sethe is the star of the novel. The entire novel revolves around her (Morrison 1). It also talks of the people who are her children, her lover and her relatives. She is a slave in Kentucky. She escaped from the Garner residence named Sweet Home because they had died.The new slave owner, the school teacher, was too harsh on them. Thus, Sethe and the other slaves could not bear the inhuman treatment of the school teacher thus forcing them to fight back. This fighting back was in the form of running away. Sethe and the other slaves had to run away to freedom. However, Sethe was discovered barely a month after her bold escape. Upon being caught, Sethe slit the throat of her child, Beloved, in order to keep her from suffering under slavery when she grows up to womanhood. Sethe stands out from the normal African American slaves because she is bold and independent minded.This is what insp ires her kind. She even proudly stated to Paul D. that she will not run away from things on this earth. However, Sethe’s life has no direction. She spends most of her waking hours in her home, 124, trying to forget her past where she killed her own daughter, Beloved, and she was raped by a white American. This murder occurred when escaped Sethe was caught by the white Americans. Sethe would always miss her Beloved child even after killing her. Two men caught Sethe in Mother Baby Suggs house and took her milk from her. Thus, she was not able to feed her human milk to her children .2. 2. 2 Paul D. Paul D was an African American slave in Kentucky. He escaped from his white owners only after Sethe successfully made her get away. Paul D. continuously tried to run away for eighteen years but he was caught each time. And, he finally reached Sethe’s front steps in Cincinnati after his last escape try was successful. Paul D. also had a past that he rather forget because he cons idered it as a nightmare. He locks up this sad part of his past in his tobacco tin part of his heart. For, his secretive past horror was that he was often imprisoned in a cube that lay in a ditch.The reincarnated Beloved seduces Paul D. and tells him to accept his past as a normal part of life. Beloved aids him to finally lay his heavy load of a horrible past to rest. He is steadfast in his plan not to love anything in life too much because it would be only temporary. Martin Bidney stated that â€Å"I want to show that one of Morrison's chief goals in Beloved is to rethink and transform major British romantic poets. By taking a romanticist tour of Beloved, we can see with what startling originality she reshapes the literary past† . 2. 2. 3 Beloved Beloved is the third child of Sethe, the main character of the novel.She was murdered by Sethe at the age of one. She stayed on as a ghost for the next twenty years in 124. She is reincarnated on her twenty first year. However, she has the mind of the child. He return was due to her desire to be caressed by her mother and to avenge her death at the hands of Sethe. She tries to comprehend why her own mother would kill her. She symbolizes the many African Americans killed because of the color of their skin. For, sixty million Africans that were kidnapped and forcibly packed like fishes in the very tight ocean going vessels to be sold into slavery.Beloved had come back from the other world to address such hotly contested issues as justice for the slaves, morality and slavery . One Toni Morrison’s intentions for this novel was that the story would not end with the Paul D. rather, she wants this story to be told and retold so that many people from the current and future generations will not forget the slave past of African Americans. For, Paul D. finally laid to rest his nightmare as a former slave by accepting it as part of his heritage. Beloved successfully opened the eyes of Paul D. to finally accept his past and to move on . 2. 2. 4 Baby Suggs Baby Suggs is Sethe’s mother in law.She is the mother of her husband, African American Halle. The novel states that Baby Suggs had died eight years ago. Baby Suggs was given freedom by her white American owners. She was happy that her owner informed that she is a free woman. She feels that that she now owns the different parts of her body. She encouraged her fellow African Americans to love themselves for what they are. She spread the word that her fellow African Americans should endure all that the White Americans placed on them and everything would turn out fine . 2. 2. 5 Denver She is the living daughter of Sethe. She felt that the arrival of Paul D.has left her alone in a small corner of her mother’s home. Paul D. and Sethe often stayed to make love. Sethe feels that three is crowd because her mother and Paul D. were too busy sharing love with each other. And, Sethe feels that the boys and the girls of her time did not want to be her friends. She does not feel lonely because her lonely hours are spend conversing with her only friend. This friend is the ghost of Beloved. However, the ghost of Beloved is finally driven off by Paul D. 2. 2. 6 Howard & Buglar They are the two other children of Sethe. They ran away from Sethe when they were still thirteen years old . 2. 2.7 Stamp Pride Stamp Pride is another African American slave. He had to endure his horrible past. This past was his that he was forced to give his wife away to the white Americans so that she could be their sex toy. Stamp Pride worked actively against the forceful taking of his wife . 2. 3 Racism Beloved focuses on racism. The African slaves are classified as animals by the people during this time period. The novel focuses on the school teacher. The school teacher likens the slaves not as a human being but only as an animal. This means that they are just like the pet dogs and the working horses that Caucasians own in their farms.As animals, the Caucasian owners can do whatever they please with their property. And, the slaves are classified as property that the owners definitely will be useful in the farms of the slave states especially in the Southern United States territories. The African Americans are portrayed by the Beloved novel literally as having the same five senses that the Caucasian owners have. The slaves also have the senses of sight, hearing, smelling, touch and taste . Evidently, the novel Beloved emphasizes that the African American slaves are also human beings and should not be treated like ordinary cats, dogs, horses or any other work animals.The novel is replete with voluminous pages showing that the African Americans are torn between fighting for their freedom from slavery or to just accept the stark reality that they were born to be harnessed just like pet dogs and horses. Also, the tune period of the story is very volatile as evidenced by the thousands who have died on both the Union side under Ro bert E. Lee and the Confederate side under General Ulysses S. Grant. The civil war was fought by the Union soldiers because they wanted to free the slaves.The Confederate soldiers fought the war because they felt they had to break away from the United States and form a separate nation where slavery is allowed . The novel raises the issue of racism throughout the entire novel. It defines what freedom is to the slaves. Baby Suggs felt that she was free. However she had to right to privacy and property. For, the White Americans could barge into her home and search her place anytime of the day without need to ask for her permission. This what the white Americans did when they stormed her place to search for the escaping Sethe who brought along her children four children.Also, the Paul D. was not allowed to love whatever he wanted to love due to African American lineage. Racism is very evident because the African Americans had to wait in line for the white Americans to finish their groce ry purchases before they were allowed to enter and buy grocery items. The author, Morrison, emphasizes that being a free slave does not only mean NOT belonging to any white American. Racism has caused a break up of the African American families. For, the children of the African Americans would be taken away from them by their owners never to be seen again.This is due to the fact that Slaves are the property of their masters . 2. 4 Kentucky the 1800s Kentucky in the 1800s was a time where owning a slave is normal human activity. Also, many slave rebellions cropped up during this time period. People like John Trumbull had to find ways to fight out any revolt from their slaves . CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODLOGY This chapter presents and discusses the method of research used and the procedures utilized by the researcher in this study. It likewise includes the sources of data and the treatment of data. Methodology of the studyThis investigation adopted the compare and contrast qualitative research method as this is the most appropriate way in determining the effect the type of business to the success of the business. In addition, the quantitative approach was included to complement the qualitative part of this research. The Archival Research is defined by Bordens, Kenneth S. , and Abbott, Bruce B. , (1999) as a non-experimental strategy that involves studying existing records. These records can be historical account of events, census data, court records, police crime reports, or any other archived information.This qualitative study is divided by two parts. They are: 1. Compare Motherhood and Feminism in Beloved 2. Contrast Motherhood and Feminism in Beloved. And, the quantitative study focused on interviewing twenty persons who have read the Beloved novel. The researcher took pains in reading, searching and analysis of the different parts of this study. The researcher examined the comparison and contrast of Motherhood and Feminism in Beloved. The historic al background is one of the main focus of this study including their success.The final phase was the analysis, presentation and the drawing of the conclusions and the recommendation. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT The primary research instrument and technique was used in the gathering of data for this study. In addition, the researcher used secondary sources taken from books and journals. These secondary sources had guided the researcher to broaden the point of understanding specifically the effect of Motherhood on Feminism in Beloved. The analysis of variance was used to compare the different topics found in Beloved and the respondents answers grouped according to Age, Gender and Highest Educational Attainment.The formula for Analysis of Variance includes Y i = e i where e i is N(0, ? 2 ) [2. 1] RESEARCH PROCEDURE The researcher seeks the primary as well as secondary materials as the best way to examine the effect of Slavery on Motherhood and Feminism in the Beloved Novel. After a through stu dying, reading and scrutinizing the different data, it is best to use the secondary sources as a basis for company business analysis and then coming up with the output – Results of the Effect of Slavery on Motherhood and Feminism in the Beloved Novel.

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Chapter 12 Basic Approaches to Leadership MULTIPLE CHOICE What Is Leadership? 1. John Kotter’s view argues that management focuses on coping with complexity, whereas leadership focuses on coping with _____. a. conflict b. success c. defeat d. morale e. change (e; Moderate; Management and Leadership; p. 385) 2. Which of the following roles focuses on bringing about order and consistency by drawing up formal plans? a. leadership b. management c. task structure d. initiating structure e. none of the above (b; Easy; Management; p. 385) 3. Leadership is best defined as _____. a. he ability to influence a group in goal achievement b. keeping order and consistency in the midst of change c. implementing the vision and strategy provided by management d. coordinating and staffing the organization and handling day-to-day problems e. not a relevant variable in modern organizations (a; Moderate; Leadership; p. 385) 4. Which of the following statements regarding leadership is true? a. All l eaders are managers. b. Formal rights enable managers to lead effectively. c. All managers are leaders. d. All leaders are hierarchically superior to followers. . Nonsanctioned leadership is as important as or more important than formal influence. (e; Challenging; Leadership; p. 386) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Trait Theories 5. Which theory differentiates leaders from nonleaders by focusing on personal qualities and characteristics? a. Fiedler’s perspective b. characteristic theory c. LPC d. contingency theory e. trait theory (e; Easy; Trait Theories; p. 386) 6. According to a comprehensive review of the leadership literature, what is the most important trait of effective leaders? a. conscientiousness b. openness c. extraversion d. greeableness e. emotional stability (c; Easy; Big Five and Trait Theories; p. 386) 7. Recent studies indicate that ________ may indicate effective leadership. a. an endless supply of terrific ideas b. a compelling vision c. a highly analytical mind d . outstanding training e. emotional intelligence (e; Easy; Emotional Intelligence and Trait Theories; p. 387) 8. Emotional intelligence is so critical to effective leadership because one of its core components is ________. a. conscientiousness b. empathy c. openness d. extraversion e. agreeableness (b; Easy; Trait Theories; p. 387) 9.There is fairly strong evidence that traits can predict _____ more accurately than leadership effectiveness. a. leadership emergence b. extraversion in leaders c. leadership awareness d. leadership competence e. the conscientiousness of leaders (a; Moderate; Trait Theories; p. 388) Behavioral Theories 10. Trait research suggests that we focus on _____, whereas behavioral studies imply that we can effectively _____. a. teaching people certain traits; teach people certain behaviors b. selecting the right person for a job; train leaders c. changing jobs to suit people; change people to suit jobs d. raining new employees; dispense with training e. identifyi ng certain traits in leaders; ignore leaders’ traits (b; Moderate; Trait Theories versus Behavioral Theories; p. 389) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 11. If trait theories of leadership are valid, then leaders are _____. a. trained b. born c. authoritarian d. educated e. grown (b; Moderate; Trait Theories; p. 389) 12. If behavioral leadership theories are correct, then _____. a. leadership behaviors are consistent b. leaders are born with leadership behaviors c. leaders’ behavior should be altered d. leadership can be taught e. omen generally make better leaders than men (d; Moderate; Behavioral Theories; p. 389) 13. Which of the following is not a behavioral theory of leadership? a. Ohio State studies b. Fiedler model c. University of Michigan studies d. managerial grid e. All of the above are behavior theories of leadership. (b; Moderate; Behavioral Theories; pp. 389-390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 14. The two dimensions of leadership behavior explained in the Ohio State stud ies are _____. a. coercion and motivation b. concern for people and concern for production c. employee-oriented and production-oriented d. nitiating structure and consideration e. operant conditioning and classical conditioning (d; Moderate; Ohio State Studies; p. 389) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 15. According to the Ohio State studies, the extent to which a leader’s behavior is directed toward getting the job done is called _____. a. consideration b. maximization c. relationship-oriented d. path-goal e. initiating structure (e; Moderate; Initiating Structure; p. 389) 16. A leader high in initiating structure would do which of the following? a. seek consensus b. exhibit laissez-faire type of leadership c. maximize leader-member relations d. ssign group members to particular tasks e. empower employees to make their own decisions (d; Moderate; Initiating Structure; p. 389) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 17. According to the Ohio State studies, the extent to which a leader is likely to h ave job relationships characterized by mutual trust and respect for his/her employees is _____. a. consideration b. matrix c. consensus-building d. LPC e. maximization (a; Moderate; Consideration; p. 389) 18. The two dimensions of leadership behavior identified in the University of Michigan studies are _____. a. coercion and motivation b. emotional and rational c. mployee-oriented and production-oriented d. initiating structure and consideration e. initiation and completion (c; Moderate; University of Michigan Studies; p. 390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 19. The University of Michigan studies define a(n) _____ leader as one who takes personal interest in the needs of his/her subordinates. a. LMX b. contextual c. employee-oriented d. consensus-building e. consummate (c; Moderate; Employee-Oriented Leaders; p. 390) 20. If a leader’s main concern is accomplishing his/her group’s tasks, the University of Michigan studies label this leader _____. a. consideration-oriented . ma nagerial c. ineffective d. high achieving e. production-oriented (e; Moderate; Production-Oriented Leaders; p. 390) 21. According to University of Michigan researchers, which type of leaders is associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction? a. situational b. employee-oriented c. production-oriented d. initiating structure-oriented e. heliocentric (b; Moderate; Employee-Oriented Leaders; p. 390) 22. The graphic portrayal of a two-dimensional view of leadership style by Blake and Mouton is known as the _____. a. least preferred co-worker scale b. leader-participation model c. utocratic-democratic continuum d. managerial grid e. matrix of discretion (d; Easy; Managerial Grid; p. 390) 23. According to the Managerial Grid, managers perform best using which of the following styles? a. 9,9 b. consideration c. contingency d. development-oriented e. rigid (a; Moderate; Managerial Grid; p. 390) 24. According to Blake and Mouton, a leader with a 9,1 style can best be de scribed as a(n) ____ type of leader. a. visionary b. laissez-faire c. authority d. effusive e. contrasting (c; Moderate; Managerial Grid; p. 390) Contingency Theories: Fiedler Model and Situational Leadership Theory 5. All contingency theories are based on the idea that effective leadership performance depends on _____. a. the proper match between the leader’s style and the control the situation gives the leader b. selecting the right leadership style based on the level of the followers’ readiness c. using a leadership style that is appropriate to the situational conditions d. making use of the best path for the goal that is identified e. none of the above (c; Challenging; Contingency Models; p. 392) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 26. Who proposed a contingency theory? a. Fiedler b. Surber c. Grey . Deickman e. Swartz (a; Easy; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 27. The first comprehensive contingency model for leadership was developed by _____. a. Hersey and Blanchard b. Bl ake and Mouton c. Fred Fiedler d. John Kotter e. Douglas Surber (c; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 28. Which model represents the theory that effective group performance depends on the proper match between a leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader? a. Leader-Member Exchange Model b. Fiedler’s Contingency Model c. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model d.Vroom and Yetton’s Leader-Participation Model e. none of the above (b; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 29. Who developed the LPC (least preferred co-worker) questionnaire? a. Wachner b. Fiedler c. House d. Blake and Mouton e. Surber (b; Moderate; Least Preferred Coworker; p. 392) 30. In Fiedler’s model, if a respondent describes his or her least preferred co-worker in relatively positive terms, then the respondent is considered to be _____. a. relationship-oriented b. people-oriented c. consensus-building d. considerati on-focused e. unrealistic (a; Challenging; Least Preferred Coworker; p. 92) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 31. If a survey respondent sees his or her least preferred co-worker in unfavorable terms, Fiedler would categorize the respondent as _____. a. overly critical b. task-oriented c. emotionally deficient d. insightful e. laissez-faire (b; Moderate; Least Preferred Coworker; p. 392) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 32. Fiedler’s contingency model assumes that an individual’s leadership style is _____. a. changeable b. contingent c. situational d. fixed e. intangible (d; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 33. Three situational criteria identified in the Fiedler model are _____. . job requirements, position power, and leadership ability b. charisma, influence, and leader-member relations c. leader-member relations, task structure, and position power d. task structure, leadership ability, and group conflict e. emotional intelligence, group orientation, and employee status ( c; Moderate; Fiedler’s Key Situational Factors; p. 393) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 34. Fiedler labels the degree of confidence, trust, and respect that subordinates have in their leader as _____. a. leader-member relations b. relationship orientation c. positional power d. employee-orientation . none of the above (a; Easy; Leader-Member Relations; p. 393) 35. The degree to which job assignments are procedurized is classified in the Fiedler model as _____. a. leader-member relations b. task orientation c. task structure d. initiating structure e. productivity oriented (c; Moderate; Task Structures; p. 393) 36. Fiedler’s theory predicts that an individual who is considered task oriented will be most effective when the situation is _____. a. moderately to highly favorable b. moderately favorable c. moderately to highly unfavorable d. very favorable or very unfavorable e. highly favorable d; Challenging; Matching Leaders and Situations; pp. 393-394) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 37. Based on the contingency theory, if the leadership style does not match the situation, you should _____. a. change the leader to fit the situation b. change the situation to fit the leader c. accept this circumstance as unchangeable d. either a or b e. retrain the leader in a more appropriate style (d; Moderate; Matching Leaders and Situations; p. 394) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 38. The reconceptualization of the contingency model by Garcia and Fiedler is called _____ theory. a. situational b. cognitive resource . evaluative d. leadership recognition e. cognitive dissonance (b; Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) 39. Cognitive resource theory focuses on the role of ____ as a form of situational unfavorableness and how a leader’s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction. a. stress b. task structure c. position power d. conflict e. resolution (a; Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) 40. All of the following are findings of the cognitive resou rce theory except _____. a. low stress situations show a positive relationship between intellectual abilities and performance b. ow stress situations show a positive relationship between job experience and performance c. high stress situations show a negative relationship between intellectual abilities and performance d. high stress situations show a positive relationship between job experience and performance e. None of the above are findings of the theory. (b; Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 41. Hersey and Blanchard developed which of the following? a. situational leadership theory b. cognitive resource theory c. managerial grid model d. path-goal theory . cognitive orientation model (a; Moderate; Situational Leadership Theory; p. 395) 42. Hersey and Blanchard’s leadership theory differs from other leadership theories primarily because it _____. a. explores the role of the expectations of the leader for the follower b. focuses on the fo llowers c. holds that leadership style should be dependent on the situation d. is normative e. deals strictly and exclusively with contingencies (b; Challenging; Situational Leadership Theory; p. 395) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 43. According to Hersey and Blanchard, readiness encompasses the _____. a. egree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader b. amount of influence a leader has over variables such as hiring, firing, and salaries c. level of morale and satisfaction of the employees d. ability and willingness of the followers to accomplish a task e. all of the above (d; Moderate; Readiness; p. 396) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 44. Hersey and Blanchard say that the laissez-faire leadership style should be used when employees are ____ to accomplish a task. a. unable and willing b. able and unwilling c. unable and unwilling d. able and willing e. none of the above d; Moderate; Situational Leadership Theory; p. 396) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 45. What theory was develop ed by Robert House? a. cognitive resource model b. decision theory c. leader-member exchange theory d. path-goal theory e. situational leadership theory (d; Moderate; Path-Goal Theory; p. 396) 46. The leadership model that integrates the expectancy theory of motivation with the Ohio State leadership research is _____. a. path-goal b. contingency c. leader-participation d. leader-member exchange e. cognitive arousal (a; Challenging; Path-Goal Theory; p. 396) 47. What is the essence of the path-goal theory? . Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style. b. Stress is a form of situational unfavorableness and a leader’s reaction to it depends on his or her intelligence and experience. c. Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader. d. Leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers because of time pressures. e . The leader is responsible for providing followers with the information, support, or other resources necessary for them to do their jobs. e; Moderate; Path-Goal Theory; p. 397) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 48. The leadership behaviors identified by the path-goal theory are _____. a. supportive, employee-oriented, laissez-faire, and participative b. achievement-oriented, supportive, humanistic, and directive c. participative, achievement-oriented, directive, and supportive d. directive, participative, supportive, and laissez-faire e. affective, cognitive, and behavioral (c; Challenging; Path-Goal Theory; p. 397) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 49. Which path-goal leadership style leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful? . directive b. supportive c. participative d. mixed e. reactive (a; Moderate; Path-Goal Theory; p. 397) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 50. According to House, what leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers? a. the achievement-oriented leader b. the directive leader c. the laissez-faire leader d. the participative leader e. the supportive leader (e; Easy; Path-Goal Theory; p. 397) 51. Which of the following is not an example of a prediction based on path-goal theory? a. Subordinates with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a directive style. b.Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful. c. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance when performing structured tasks. d. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant by employees with a lot of experience. e. All of the above are examples of predictions based on path-goal theory. (a; Challenging; Path-Goal Theory Predictions; p. 398) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 52. Which of the following theories argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their subordinates? . managerial grid b. lea der-member exchange c. path-goal d. expectancy e. contingency (b; Easy; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 398) 53. According to LMX theory, which of the following is not true of those individuals who fall into the out-group? a. They receive a disproportionate amount of the leader’s attention. b. They have leader-follower relations based on formal authority interaction. c. They are less trusted. d. They receive fewer of the preferred rewards that the leader controls. e. All of the above statements are true. (a; Easy; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 99) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 54. According to LMX theory, a leader implicitly categorizes followers as â€Å"in† or â€Å"out† _____. a. after careful analysis b. on a temporary basis c. early in the interaction d. because of political pressure e. based on job requirements (c; Easy; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 399) Decision Theory; Vroom and Yetton’s Leader-Participation Model 55. The leader-participatio n model was developed by _____. a. Hersey and Blanchard b. Fred Fiedler c. Blake and Mouton d. Vroom and Yetton e. Douglas and Surber (d; Moderate; Leadership-Participation Model; p. 400) 56.Vroom and Yetton’s leadership theory could also be described as a _____ theory. a. contingency b. decision c. behavioral d. trait e. cognitive dissonance (b; Moderate; Leadership-Participation Model; p. 400) 57. Criticism of Vroom and Yetton’s leader-participation model focus on ________. a. the model’s overall complexity b. the lack of research testing of the model c. the abstract nature of the model d. the model’s emphasis on follower commitment e. the model’s emphasis on time restrictions related to decision-making (a; Challenging; Criticism of Leadership-Participation Model; p. 400) TRUE/FALSEWhat Is Leadership? 58. Leadership and management are two terms that are often confused. (True; Easy; Management and Leadership; p. 385) 59. According to Kotter, manag ement focuses on coping with change; leadership focuses on coping with complexity. (False; Moderate; Management and Leadership; p. 385) 60. Leadership can be defined as the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of cohesiveness. (False; Moderate; Leadership; p. 385) 61. Holding a management position is an important step towards becoming a leader in an organization. (False; Moderate; Management and Leadership; p. 385) 62.Strong leadership is the primary element needed for optimum organizational effectiveness. (False; Moderate; Leadership; p. 385) Trait Theories 63. By the 1990s, numerous studies indicated that leaders differed from nonleaders only in ambition and self-confidence. (False; Challenging; Leadership; p. 386) 64. Research efforts at isolating leadership traits achieved a breakthrough, of sorts, when researchers began organizing traits around the Big Five personality framework. (True; Moderate; Big Five and Trait Theories; p. 386) 65. The Big Five personality framework revealed that traits are most useful as predictors of leadership emergence. True; Moderate; Big Five and Trait Theories; p. 386) Behavioral Theories 66. Trait research would provide a basis for selecting the â€Å"right† persons to assume formal positions requiring leadership. (True; Easy; Trait Theories; p. 389) 67. One assumption of the trait view of leadership is that leaders cannot be trained. (True; Moderate; Trait Theories; p. 389) 68. If behavioral theories of leadership are valid, selection of leaders should focus on length of experience an individual has obtained in the right situations. (False; Easy; Behavioral Theories; p. 389) 69.If behavioral theories of leadership are valid, we could have an infinite supply of effective leaders. (True; Challenging; Behavioral Theories; p. 389) 70. The most comprehensive and replicated of the behavioral theories resulted from research begun by Fred Fiedler. (False; Moderate; Ohio State Studies; p. 389) 71. The Ohio Stat e Studies involved research on only two dimensions – initiating structure and consideration. (True; Moderate; Ohio State Studies; p. 389) 72. A leader designated as high on initiating structure would be likely to clearly define the roles of his or her subordinates. (True; Easy; Initiating Structure; p. 389) 3. According to the University of Michigan studies, production-oriented leadership is defined as the extent to which a leader tends to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job. (False; Moderate; University of Michigan Studies; p. 390) 74. The University of Michigan studies found that production-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productivity than employee-oriented leaders. (False; Challenging; University of Michigan Studies; p. 390) 75. The managerial grid model of leadership uses a grid containing nine possible positions on each axis, representing 81 different positions in which a leader’s style may fall. True; Moderate; Managerial Grid; p . 390) 76. The managerial grid model holds that managers tend to perform best under a 9,9 management style. (True; Moderate; Managerial Grid; p. 390) 77. The managerial grid was developed by a team of researchers known as the Scandinavian Studies group. (False; Easy; Managerial Grid; p. 390) 78. The managerial grid helped promote the progress of leadership research by identifying the productivity results produced by each of 81 different leadership styles. (False; Challenging; Managerial Grid; p. 390) Contingency Theories: Fiedler Model and Situational Leadership Theory 79.The Fiedler contingency model proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between a leader’s style and the degree to which a situation gives control to the leader. (True; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 80. Fiedler’s contingency model is considered to be the first comprehensive contingency model for leadership. (True; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392 ) 81. Contingency models of leadership suggest that there is no one best style of leadership. (True; Easy; Contingency Models; p. 392) 82. Fiedler believes that a key factor in leadership success is the follower’s preferences for co-worker types. False; Easy; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 83. Fiedler’s findings focused on results obtained from his pioneering use of the most preferred co-worker (MPC) questionnaire. (False; Easy; Least Preferred Coworker; p. 392) 84. In Fiedler’s approach, if a respondent uses unfavorable terms to describe the co-worker in question, the respondent can be said to be primarily task-oriented. (True; Moderate; Least Preferred Coworker; p. 392) 85. Fiedler’s theory is based on the assumption that leaders can’t change their styles to fit changing situations. (True; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 86.Fiedler’s theory suggests that training is an effective tool to improve leader effectiveness. (False ; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) 87. Fiedler’s three situational factors include: leader-member relations, task structure, and stress. (False; Moderate; Fiedler’s Key Situational Factors; p. 393) 88. According to Fiedler, task structure is the degree to which the job assignments are procedurized. (True; Moderate; Task Structures; p. 393) 89. According to Fiedler, leader-member relations concern the degree to which a leader takes a personal interest in the needs of his or her employees and accepts individual differences among them. False; Challenging; Position Power; p. 393) 90. According to Fiedler’s contingency model, task-oriented leaders are most effective in situations of high or low control. (True; Moderate; Matching Leaders and Situations; pp. 393-394) 91. Fiedler assumes that we should concentrate on changing situations to suit the leaders or changing the leaders to fit the situation. (True; Moderate; Matching Leaders and Situations; p. 394) 92. Taken as a whole, tests of the overall validity of the Fiedler model tend to support substantial parts of the model. (True; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 394) 93.One criticism of the Fiedler model concerns the fact that the logic underlying the model’s questionnaire is not well understood. (True; Moderate; Problems with Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 395) 94. Studies regarding the Fiedler model have shown that respondents’ questionnaire scores tend to be relatively stable. (False; Moderate; Problems with Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 395) 95. One advantage of the Fiedler model is that its contingency variables are simple and easy to assess. (False; Moderate; Problems with Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 395) 96. The essence of cognitive resource theory is that stress is the enemy of rationality. True; Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) 97. Cognitive resource theory predicts that in low-stress situations, bright individuals perform better in the le adership role than their less intelligent counterparts. (True; Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) 98. Cognitive resource theory predicts that in high-stress situations, more experienced individuals perform better than do less experienced people. (True; Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) 99. Under the cognitive resource theory, experience is generally a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness. False; Easy; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) 100. Hersey and Blanchard argue that the correct leadership style is contingent on the level of the follower’s readiness. (True; Easy; Situational Leadership Theory; p. 395) 101. Situational leadership theory essentially views the leader-follower relationship as analogous to that between a parent and child. (True; Easy; Situational Leadership Theory; p. 396) 102. Situational leadership theory has been well validated by research but not well received by practitioners because there are so many factors to examine. (Fal se; Moderate; Situational Leadership Theory; p. 96) 103. SLT is an example of a trait theory. (False; Easy; Situational Leadership Theory; pp. 395-396) 104. The path-goal model of leadership integrates the expectancy model of motivation with key elements of the Ohio State Studies. (True; Moderate; Path-Goal Theory; p. 396) 105. Path-goal theory assumes leaders are flexible and can display different leadership behavior depending on the situation. (True; Moderate; Path-Goal Theory; p. 397) 106. A hypothesis that has evolved out of path-goal theory is that directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful. True; Moderate; Path-Goal Theory Predictions; p. 398) Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 107. In the leader-member exchange theory, leaders don’t treat all of their subordinates alike. (True; Moderate; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 397) 108. According to LMX theory, out-group members get more of the leader’s time, but in a neg ative manner. (False; Moderate; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 397) 109. In the leader-member exchange theory, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of employees called the â€Å"supportive followers. † (False; Moderate; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 397) 110.Research testing of LMX theory has been generally supportive. (True, Moderate, Evaluation of Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 398) Decision Theory; Vroom and Yetton’s Leader-Participation Model 111. The leader-participation model provides a set of rules that leaders can use to determine the appropriate leadership behavior for a given task structure. (True; Moderate; Leadership-Participation Model; p. 400) 112. The complexity of the leadership-participation model enables leaders to apply it realistically when they are assessing decision-making situations. (False; Challenging; Criticism of Leadership-Participation Model; p. 00) SCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONS Application of Trait Theories Your company’s HR director is a believer in trait theories of leadership. He believes that he can differentiate leaders from non-leaders by focusing on personal qualities and characteristics. The HR director plans to promote Lawrence, a highly extroverted manager with a great deal of ambition and energy. Furthermore, the president of the company is preparing to retire, and the HR director is searching for her replacement. He asks for your expertise in helping him to apply trait theory to leadership selection within your company. 13. You explain that research efforts at isolating leadership traits have ________. a. identified six leadership traits that predict leadership b. been supportive of the Big Five leadership traits predicting leadership c. shown that conscientiousness does not help much in predicting leadership d. identified emotional stability as the most strongly related trait to leader emergence e. been more focused on developing contingency theories and replacing trait theories (b; Easy; Big Five and Trait Theories; p. 386) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 114.When selecting individuals for leadership positions, trait theory suggests that which of the following is least helpful for identifying leaders? a. extraversion b. conscientiousness c. openness to experience d. agreeableness e. ambition (d; Moderate; Big Five and Trait Theories; p. 387) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 115. You advise the director to prioritize which of the following when looking for appropriate candidates for the president’s replacement? a. goal-orientation b. analytical capacity c. emotional intelligence d. emotional stability e. training (c; Moderate; Emotional Intelligence and Trait Theories; p. 387) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 16. The director believes that because of these innate characteristics, Lawrence will be highly effective at helping the company achieve its production goals. You advise the director against this decision because ________. a. research has identified emotiona l stability as the strongest predictor of leadership effectiveness b. studies have found that the Big Five traits are difficult to identify in leaders c. studies have shown that traits are poor predictors of leadership effectiveness d. research has found that conscientiousness is a better predictor of effectiveness than extraversion e. esearch has shown that effective managers are often unlikely to become effective leaders (c; Moderate; Trait Theories; p. 388) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Trait and Behavioral Theories You are the CEO of an engineering design firm that has several departments, each specializing in the design of different products. You have noticed a great deal of difference between the styles of the various department directors. You also see a big difference in the morale, employee satisfaction levels, and effectiveness (productivity) levels of the departments.One of your goals as CEO is to maximize productivity across all departments. 117. As you look at the difference between the department directors, you notice that some are more charismatic and enthusiastic than others. In identifying this difference, you are looking at the directors’ _____. a. behaviors b. traits c. personalities d. attitudes e. all of the above (b; Easy; Traits; p. 386) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 118. Some of the departmental directors spend more time training and helping their employees, while other spend more time on the technical issues that arise in the development process.According to the categories used in the University of Michigan studies, the directors can be described as ________. a. oriented toward initiating structure vs. oriented toward consideration b. employee-oriented vs. production-oriented c. training-oriented vs. development-oriented d. assistance-oriented vs. growth-oriented e. authority-type leaders vs. laissez faire-type leaders (b; Moderate; University of Michigan Studies; p. 390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 119. Based on the results of the University of Michigan studies, which directors most likely have departments with higher productivity and job satisfaction? . the employee-oriented leaders b. the production-oriented leaders c. the consideration-oriented leaders d. the development-oriented leaders e. the task-oriented leaders (a; Moderate; Employee-Oriented Leaders; p. 390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 120. Of all the departments, Gerard’s department has the greatest production output. His employees seem most satisfied with his leadership as well. You categorize the behavioral styles of each department director using the managerial grid. According to the work of Blake and Mouton, who developed the grid, which of the following is most likely to reflect Gerard’s score on he grid? a. 8,8 b. 5,5 c. 1,7 d. 7,1 e. 1,1 (a; Moderate; Managerial Grid; p. 390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 121. It can be inferred that the poorest performing director is most likely to receive which of the following scores on the mana gerial grid? a. 9,9 b. 1,9 c. 9,1 d. 5,5 e. 1,1 (e; Challenging; Managerial Grid; p. 390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Fiedler’s Contingency Theory You have decided to use Fiedler’s LPC questionnaire to help your employees learn more about their leadership styles. Each of your employees has filled out and scored the instrument.It is your job to try to explain to them how to use the survey information. 122. According to Fiedler’s approach, your employees should assume which of the following about the leadership styles determined through using the survey? a. Each person’s style is essentially fixed. b. Each person can use the information to change his/her style to a more productive style. c. Task-oriented leaders will not perform as well as relationship-oriented leaders in situations that are very unfavorable. d. Task-oriented leaders will perform better than relationship-oriented leaders in moderately favorable situations. . Each person’s style will change in accordance with the situation at hand. (a; Moderate; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 123. Fran completes the LPC questionnaire and finds that she described her least preferred co-worker in relatively positive terms. She is surprised by this finding because she recalls being particularly annoyed by this difficult co-worker. Based on your understanding of Fiedler’s model, you explain to Fran that her LPC score makes sense within the model because ________. a. Fran tends to become very dominating when given ambiguous tasks b.Fran is usually much more focused on productivity than on developing relationships c. Fran tends in general to focus on building good relationships with the other employees at your company d. Fran has a spotty work history and has tended to switch jobs every couple of years e. Fran is usually chosen for positions of high responsibility within your organization (c; Challenging; Least Preferred Coworker; p. 392 ) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 124. In utilizing Fiedler’s contingency model, which of the following contingency dimensions should your employees pay attention to? a. leader-member relations b. ask structure c. position power d. All of the above are important dimensions in this model. e. None of the above are important dimensions in this model. (d; Moderate; Fiedler’s Key Situational Factors; p. 393) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 125. The Fiedler model proposes ________. a. changing the leader b. changing the situation c. matching leaders and situations d. changing the employees e. training the leader to match each situation (c; Easy; Matching Leaders and Situations; p. 394) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Various Theories Your boss has been reading several books on leadership. You notice that every ew months he is spouting a different approach and philosophy. You have been trying to keep up with him and figure out which â€Å"leadership theory of the month† he i s studying. 126. Suddenly your boss begins sending people to training to help them develop more effective leadership styles. It is clear that he is reading an author who supports _____. a. trait theories b. behavioral theories c. Fiedler’s contingency model d. the reflection effect e. none of the above (b; Easy; Behavioral Theories; p. 389) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 127. You have noticed that your boss is often asking you what types of peers you least like to work with.You suspect that he is trying to covertly determine your leadership style according to _____. a. Hersey and Blanchard b. Vroom and Yetton c. Fiedler d. Sondak e. none of the above (c; Easy; Fiedler Contingency Model; p. 392) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 128. This month your boss seems less concerned about his leaders than he is about the people who work for them and whether these employees are willing and able to perform particular tasks. Your boss is most likely reading _____. a. Hersey and Blanchard b. Vroom and Y etton c. Fiedler d. Christos e. Fiedler and Garcia (a; Easy, Situational Leadership Theory; p. 95) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 129. Now your boss seems to be trying to analyze each leader according to which employees they interact with most and least, and which employees they rate highest and lowest. You suspect that he is reading about which of the following models? a. SLT b. LMX c. LPC d. PGT e. SNFU (b; Moderate; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; p. 398) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory As you have observed your department manager and her interactions with the department’s employees, you have come to believe in LMX theory.Sarah and Joe get less of the manager’s time. Sally gets fewer of the preferred rewards that the manager controls and John has a relationship with the manager based on formal authority interactions. Rebecca is trusted. Jennifer gets a disproportionate amount of the manager’s attention and is more likely t o receive special privileges. 130. According to LMX theory, the in-group is likely to be comprised of _____. a. Rebecca and Jennifer only b. Jennifer only c. Rebecca only d. John, Rebecca, and Jennifer only e. Sarah, Joe, Sally, and John only (a; Moderate; In-Group; pp. 398-399) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 31. According to LMX theory, which of the following employees is likely to be included in the out-group? a. Rebecca only b. Jennifer only c. Sarah and Jennifer only d. Sarah and Joe only e. Sarah, Joe, Sally, and John only (c; Easy; Out-Group; p. 399) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 132. When you look at this department’s performance evaluations, you expect to find that _____. a. Rebecca and Jennifer have high ratings b. Rebecca, John, and Jennifer have high ratings c. Rebecca and Jennifer have high ratings, John has moderate ratings, and the rest of the employees have low ratings d.John has received more promotions than any of the other employees e. Rebecca and John compete with eac h other for the highest ratings (a; Moderate; In-Group; p. 399) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 133. The manager of this particular department is very goal-oriented in his leadership style. Which of the following employees is also likely to be very goal-oriented? a. Sarah b. Jennifer c. Joe d. Sally e. John (b; Moderate; In-Group; p. 399) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 134. What is the difference between leadership and management? Leadership is defined as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.Leadership is about coping with change, management is about coping with complexity. Good management brings about order and consistency by drawing up formal plans, designing rigid organization structures, and monitoring results against plans. Management consists of implementing the vision and strategy provided by leaders, coordinating and staffing the organization, and handling day-to-day problems. (Easy; Management and Leadership; p. 385) {AACSB: Analyti c Skills} 135. What â€Å"breakthrough† resulted in consistent and strong support for traits as predictors of leadership?When researchers began organizing traits around the Big Five personality framework, it became clear that most of the dozens of traits that emerged in various leadership reviews could be subsumed under one of the Big Five. This approach resulted in consistent and strong support for traits as predictors of leadership emergence. (Easy; Leadership; p. 385) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 136. What are the implications of the behavioral theories of leadership? If trait research had been successful, it would have provided a basis for selecting the â€Å"right† persons to assume formal positions in groups and organizations requiring leadership.In contrast, if behavioral studies were to turn up critical behavioral determinants of leadership, we could train people to be leaders. The difference between trait and behavioral theories, in terms of application, lies in t heir underlying assumptions. If trait theories were valid, then leaders are born rather than made. On the other hand, if there were specific behaviors that identified leaders, then we could teach leadership – we could design programs that implanted these behavioral patterns in individuals who desired to be effective leaders. Moderate; Implications of Behavioral Theories; p. 389) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 137. Identify and explain the two dimensions of leadership described in the Ohio State studies. The Ohio State studies proposed that two categories accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by employees. They called these two dimensions initiating structure and consideration. a) Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. ) Consideration is described as the extent to which a person is likely to have job relationships that are characterized b y mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings. (Easy; Ohio State Studies; p. 389) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 138. Explain the components of Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid. Blake and Mouton proposed a managerial grid based on the styles of concern for people and concern for production. This grid shows the dominating factors in a leader’s thinking in regard to getting results. Managers were found to perform best under a 9,9 style.The dimensions represent the Ohio State dimensions of consideration and initiating structure and the Michigan dimensions of employee oriented and production oriented. (Easy; Managerial Grid; p. 390) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 139. How was cognitive resource theory developed, and what are its main findings? Fiedler and Joe Garcia re-conceptualized Fiedler’s contingency model. They focused on the role of stress as a form of situational unfavorableness and how a leader’s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to stress. The essence of the theory is that stress is the enemy of rationality.Fiedler and Garcia found that a leader’s intellectual abilities correlate positively with performance under low stress but negatively under high stress. According to the theory, it’s the level of stress in the situation that determines whether an individual’s intelligence and experience will contribute to leadership performance. (Moderate; Cognitive Resource Theory; p. 395) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 140. Describe LMX theory and identify its main beliefs. This theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers.These individuals make up the in-group – they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader’s attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. Other followers fall into the out-group. They get less of the leader’s time, fewer of the preferred rewards that the leader controls, and have leader-follower relations based on formal authority interactions. The leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an â€Å"in† or â€Å"out† and that relationship is relatively stable over time. (Moderate; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; pp. 398-399) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 141. Describe the leader-participation model.Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a model that related leadership behavior and participation in decision making. Recognizing that task structures have varying demands for routine and non-routine activities, these researchers argued that leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure. The model was normative – it provided a sequential set of rules that should be followed in determining the form and amount of participation in decision making, as determined by different types of situations. The model was a decision tree incorporating seven contingencies and five alternative lea dership styles. Easy; Leadership-Participation Model; p. 400) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} MEDIUM LENGTH DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 142. Explain the principles of Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory. Situational leadership is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers. Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which they argue is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness. The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leaders.Readiness refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. SLT says if a follower is unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; if followers are unable and willing, the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for the followers’ lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get t he follower to â€Å"buy into† the leader’s desires; if followers are able and unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style; and if the employee is both able and willing, the leader doesn’t need to do much. Moderate; Situational Leadership Theory; pp. 395-396) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 143. What are the predictions of path-goal theory? Path-goal theory made several predictions: a) Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. b) Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. c) Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high perceived ability or with considerable experience. ) Employees with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative style. e) Achievement-oriented leadership will increase employee s’ expectancies that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structured. (Moderate; Path-Goal Theory Predictions; p. 398) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 144. Summarize the leader-member exchange theory. The leader-member exchange (LMX) theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers.These individuals make up the in-group—they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader’s attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. Other followers fall into the out-group. They get less of the leader’s time, fewer of the preferred rewards that the leader controls, and have leader-follower relations based on formal authority interactions. The theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an â€Å"in† or an â€Å"out† and that relations hip is relatively stable over time.The theory and research surrounding it provide substantive evidence that leaders do differentiate among followers; that these disparities are far from random; and that followers with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, lower turnover intentions, greater satisfaction with their superior, and higher overall satisfaction than will the out-group. These positive findings for in-group members are consistent with our knowledge of the self-fulfilling prophesy. (Moderate; Leader-Member Exchange Theory; pp. 98-399) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} COMPREHENSIVE ESSAYS 145. Explain Fiedler’s contingency model. In your discussion, describe the role of the LPC (least preferred coworker) questionnaire and identify the key situational factors that determine leadership effectiveness, according to this model. Fred Fiedler developed the first comprehensive contingency model for leadership. This model proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.The least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire is used to determine what the leader’s basic style is. Sixteen contrasting adjectives are used to ask respondents to describe their least-preferred co-worker. If the least preferred co-worker is described in relatively positive terms (a high LPC score), then the respondent is primarily interested in good personal relations with this co-worker. This person is considered relationship oriented. If the least preferred co-worker is primarily interested in productivity, they would be labeled task oriented.Fiedler assumes that an individual’s leadership style is fixed. Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that define the key situational factors that determine leadership effectiveness. a) Leader-member relations are the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader. b) Tas k structure is the degree to which the job assignments are procedurized. c) Position power is the degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases.The better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has. With knowledge of an individual’s LPC and an assessment of the three contingency variables, Fiedler proposes matching them up to achieve maximum leadership effectiveness. Task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that were very favorable to them and in situations that were very unfavorable. Relationship oriented leaders perform better in moderately favorable situations.Fiedler has suggested recently that task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations. There are two ways to improve leader effect iveness. You can change the leader to fit the situation. The second alternative would be to change the situation to fit the leader. This could be done by restructuring tasks or increasing or decreasing the power that the leader has to control factors such as salary increases, promotions, and disciplinary actions. (Challenging; Fiedler Contingency Model; pp. 92- 394) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 146. Compare and contrast Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory with House’s path-goal theory. Hersey and Blanchard’s situation leadership theory is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers. Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which Hersey and Blanchard argue is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness. The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leaders.The term readiness refers to the extent to which people ha ve the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. SLT says if a follower is unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions; if followers are unable and willing, the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for the followers’ lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get the follower to â€Å"buy into† the leader’s desires; if followers are able and unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and articipative style; and if the employee is both able and willing, the leader doesn’t need to do much. Path-goal theory was developed by Robert House. The essence of the theory is that it’s the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective le aders clarify the path to help their followers get from where they are to the achievement of their work goals and make the journey along the path easier by reducing roadblocks. House identified four leadership behaviors. The directive leader lets followers know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers.The participative leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level. House assumes that leaders are flexible and that the same leader can display any or all of these behaviors depending on the situation. (Challenging; Situational Leadership Theory and Path-Goal Theory; pp. 395-396) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}